The words "research paper" on a syllabus may fill you with dread. Research papers mean hours spent in the library, more hours toiling with notes and drafts, and the headache of dealing with the arcane rules of documentation.

Before you begin working on a research paper in any course, it is important to understand what a research paper is not.

• A research paper is not "about" a subject
  A research paper should have a thesis -- a clear point of view. It is not simply a generalized discussion of an issue.
• A research paper is not a summary of everything you can find
  Your goal is not to collect everything you can find out about a subject and summarize it. Although you should review as much material as possible, you should select sources that directly support your thesis.
• A research paper is not a list of quotes
  The focus of your paper is your point of view, your commentary. Direct quotations, facts, and statistics may be woven throughout your paper, but they should support your position. Your commentary should do more than simply introduce or link quotations.
• A research paper does not support a pre-conceived point of view
  Looking up facts that support what you already believe is not genuine research. You should examine evidence then form an opinion.
• A research paper does not present the ideas of others without documentation
  Research papers must use documentation methods to prevent you from plagiarizing sources. Do not borrow ideas, statistics, or facts without noting their original source.

A research paper, no matter what the subject, must achieve specific goals:

• A research paper meets the needs of the assignment
  Many instructors give specific requirements for research papers, detailing topics, use of sources, and documentation methods.
  • Make sure you fully understand the scope of the assignment.
  • Keep the needs of the assignment in mind as you work on your paper. Constantly refer to the instructor's guidelines to keep your research on track.
• A research paper has a clear focus
  The more narrow you make your subject, the easier your paper will be to write. It is better to write about one character in a novel or a play than attempt to comment on an entire work. It is easier to focus on one treatment for a single psychiatric disorder than trying to address mental health.
• A research paper has a clear thesis
  A research paper must express a point of view, not simply report on the ideas of others. The focus of the paper is not the views of others but your opinions and interpretations.
• A research paper comments on the quantity and quality of sources
  A research paper does not simply summarize and present the ideas of others. A good research paper distinguishes between reliable and biased sources, between authoritative and questionable statistics, between fact and opinion.

* Connelly Mark. http://sundance.heinle.com/reader3e/ cited in http://infotrac.thomsonlearning.com/ infowrite/research.html, accessed in 18 May 2004.

Evaluating Sources

Depending on your thesis, subject, and instructor guidelines, there are a range of sources you can use as support. Each source should be carefully examined and weighed for accuracy, value, and relevance. Too often we collect statistics, copy quotations, and present facts without questioning their validity.

EVALUATING SOURCES

BOOKS

In reviewing books, consider the following questions before you accept any or all of the author's conclusions.

PERIODICALS

SURVEYS

We are often presented with statements that "eighty percent of Americans support capital punishment" or that "three out of four students support our proposal." Statements based on surveys should be examined carefully before accepting them as valid.

STATISTICS

Anyone conducting research is likely to encounter statistics. Statistics can be impressive and appear to provide conclusive proof of an author's thesis. But as with other sources, statistics have to be evaluated carefully to measure their reliability:

USING SOURCES

There is no reason why you cannot use biased sources or questionable data -- as long as you note its weaknesses. Comment on the quality of sources you locate:

Though Smith study was conducted 1996, some of its findings are still worth
considering. . .

Franklin Veda's highly favourable biography of George Bush argues . . . .

The 1997 study, funded by a coalition of labour unions, argues that. . .

This study, based on less than a hundred respondents, states that. . .  

Strategies for Conducting Research

Each research assignment poses unique challenges. One paper may require extensive library or Internet research, while another will be based on field research, interviews, original experiments, or surveys. No matter what your topic, there are a few general strategies you can follow to save time and produce a more effective paper.

 Writing the Research Paper

Once you have completed your research and assembled your resources, you are ready to begin the first draft of the paper:

 Crediting Sources

If you use outside sources, be sure to acknowledge them. Many students find citing sources one of the most challenging aspects of writing a research paper. Documenting where you obtained information for your paper serves three important purposes:

1. Citations prevent allegations of plagiarism
   Plagiarism occurs when you present the facts, words, or ideas of someone else as your own. Students often find it difficult to believe that copying something out of The World Book for a term paper can be considered a “crime,” but plagiarism has serious consequences. In many colleges, students who submit a plagiarized paper will automatically fail the course. In some schools, students will be expelled. Outside of academics, plagiarism has ruined the careers of politicians, artists, and executives. Prominent columnists and writers have been fired from newspapers and magazines for using the ideas of others without acknowledging their original source. Hollywood studios have been sued by artists who claim ideas from their rejected screenplays were used in other films.
   Accurate documentation protects you from plagiarism by clearly labeling borrowed ideas.
2. Citations support your thesis
   Attorneys arguing a case before a judge or jury present labeled exhibits to prove their theory of a case. As a researcher, you support your thesis by introducing expert testimony, facts, case histories, and eyewitness accounts. Like an attorney, you have to clearly identify the source for evidence for it to be credible. A paper about crime that draws upon statistics from the FBI and studies from the Justice Department will be more credible than one relying only on personal observations and opinions.
   The more controversial your thesis, the more readers will demand supporting evidence.
3. Citations refer readers to other sources
   Citations not only illustrate which ideas originated with the writer and which were drawn from other sources, they alert readers where they can find more information. Through your citations, readers may learn of a biography or a website offering additional evidence.

You do not need to use citations for every fact, quotation, or idea you present:

1. Common expressions or famous quotations
   Famous sayings by Shakespeare, Jesus, or Benjamin Franklin such as "To err is human" or "I am the resurrection" do not have to be cited, even when presented as direct quotes.
2. Facts considered in the "realm of common knowledge"
   You do not have to provide a citation if you referred to a source to check a fact that is readily available in numerous sources. You do not have to cite The Encyclopaedia Britannica if you used it to find out where Arthur Miller was born or when North Dakota became a state. No one will accuse you of stealing facts that are commonly known, not subject to change, or interpretation.

In almost every other instance, however, you have to acknowledge the use of outside material:

1. Direct quotations
   Whenever you quote a source word for word, you must place it in quotation marks and cite its source.
2. Indirect quotations or paraphrases
   Even if you do not copy a source but state the author’s ideas in your own words, you must cite the source. Changing a few words or summarizing a page of text into a few sentences does not alter the fact that you are using someone else’s ideas.
3. Specific facts, statistics, and numbers
   Data will only be credible and acceptable if you present the source. If you state, "Last year, 54,450 drunk drivers were arrested in California" readers will naturally wonder where you obtained that number. Statistics only make credible evidence if readers trust their source.
4. Graphs, charts, and other visual aids
   Indicate the source of any graphic you reproduce.
   You must also cite the source for information you use to create a visual display.

 Using Direct Quotations

Although direct quotations should be used sparingly, they serve an important purpose in developing a research paper.

Use direct quotes:

1. When presenting a significant thought by an authority
2. When the material is unique and memorable
3. When the idea conflicts with the mainstream of thought
4. When presenting statistics and technical data
5. When the original statement is well-written and more compelling than a summary or paraphrase
6. When readers may question a controversial point of view

Blending Quotations With Commentary

Quotations should be blended into your text to prevent awkward transitions and confusion. Avoid "hanging quotations" that are not linked to your writing:

In the 1950s the Hollywood studios were threatened by the advent of television and loss of their right to own theaters. Leading screenwriters were blacklisted as Communists. "These were the dark days of American film" (Smith 10). But Technicolor and other special effects were seen as ways of winning back audiences and increasing profits.

Link quotations to your text:

In the 1950s the Hollywood studios were threatened by the advent of television and loss of their right to own theaters. Leading screenwriters were blacklisted as Communists. Jane Smith recalled, "These were the dark days of American film" (10). But Technicolor and other special effects were seen as ways of winning back audiences and increasing profits.

Editing Direct Quotes

Using direct quotations can present problems. In some instances the full quotation contains extraneous information or makes references not explained in the immediate text. You can delete unnecessary information by using ellipsis -- three periods indicating where words or phrases have been eliminated:

Original Text:

Franklin Roosevelt, who served as governor of New York before becoming president, used Al Smith's New York Plan as a model for the New Deal. - Nelson Jones

Edited Quotation:

Nelson Jones observed, "Franklin Roosevelt . . . used Al Smith's New York Plan as a model for the New Deal."

In editing quotations, make sure you do not distort the writer's meaning by eliminating negatives or qualifying remarks. It would be not be ethical to shorten the statement "We should only as a last resort wiretap citizens" to "We should . . . wiretap citizens."

Inserting Words Into Direct Quotations

You can insert words into direct quotations to clarify points or prevent confusion:

Original Text:

Frank King had orchestrated fund raising for the NAACP in New York and Philadelphia. Though an outspoken opponent of segregation in the South, King did not endorse using confrontational tactics such as demonstrations. King considered the Montgomery bus boycott a mistake. - Carmen Wilson

Quoting the last line might naturally lead readers to assume that Wilson's quote refers to Martin Luther King. To prevent confusion, you can insert words or phrases in brackets:

According to Wilson, "[Frank] King considered the Montgomery bus boycott a mistake."

According to Wilson, "King [no relation to Martin Luther King] considered the Montgomery bus boycott a mistake."

Altering Quotations

You can alter the wording of a direct quotation for grammatical reasons, changing verbs from singluar or plural or from past to present to prevent errors or awkward shifts. Changes are indicated by using brackets:

Original Text:

Poe, Melville, and Whitman are among the greatest American writers. - Karen Wong

Wong noted that "Poe . . . [is] among the greatest American writers."

Creating Smooth Transitions

Quotations should not appear as isolated statements but need to be blended into the main text.

Isolated:

Last year the bilingual program was completely reorganized. "Once we could get by with two or three English teachers who spoke Spanish, but now we must serve students who speak Russian, Polish, Chinese, and Vietnamese" (Lopez 12). The administration is dedicating more resources to meet the needs of recent immigrants.

Blended:

Last year the bilingual program was completely reorganized. Dean Sara Lopez noted "once we could get by with two or three English teachers who spoke Spanish, but now we must serve students who speak Russian, Polish, Chinese, and Vietnamese" (12). The administration is dedicating more resources to meet the needs of recent immigrants.

or

Last year the bilingual program was completely reorganized. "Once we could get by with two or three English teachers who spoke Spanish, but now we must serve students who speak Russian, Polish, Chinese, and Vietnamese," noted Dean Sara Lopez (12). The administration is dedicating more resources to meet the needs of recent immigrants

 Writing the Introduction and Conclusion

The opening and closing of anything you write is important. The way you introduce your subject to your reader in the first few lines will greatly determine how they will approach your ideas or even if they will continue reading at all. The introduction of a research paper is especially important because research papers tend to be long and complex.

The Introduction

Your introduction should accomplish key goals:

1. Grab attention -- open with a quote, fact, statistic, or short narrative.
2. Convince readers that your paper is worth reading -- demonstrate the importance of your subject with details.
3. Explain the basic context of your subject
4. Narrow the topic to a specific thesis that clearly states your position

You can also use the introduction to explain or justify your research methods or address reader objections.

The Conclusion

Your conclusion should accomplish specific tasks:

1. Bring the paper to an interesting, logical end
2. End with a final fact, quote, or comment to provoke readers to accept your ideas and think about the topic on their own
3. Reinforce the main points of the essay without unnecessary repetition
4. Speculate about future action

MLA vs APA Style: An Overview

College instructors generally require that you follow a specific method of presenting and listing outside sources. Refer to "Crediting Sources" for guidelines for citing sources. Students often confuse two of the most common styles -- MLA and APA

For full details about each style refer to the official manuals:

MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 6th edition

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 4th edition

 Research and the Internet

The Internet has opened new avenues for students conducting research. But like the library, the Internet must be used with caution. When you approach the college library, it is important to remember that all the books were written by fallible human beings. It is even more important to realize that almost anyone with a computer can post a web site. As with any search, it is essential to consider the source, quality, and value of material you retrieve from the Internet.

SEARCHING THE INTERNET

Many students are frustrated when they use the Internet to obtain information. Seeking information about Alice Walker's The Color Purple for an upcoming discussion, they enter ALICE WALKER and are dismayed by a list of 23,769 responses, including ones for Walker Engineering, Walker College, Alice in Wonderland, and dozens of syllabi by English instructors scattered across the country. If you follow on-line directions or ask a reference librarian for assistance, you can quickly master skills to navigate the web.

GENERAL SEARCH ENGINES

General search engines like Netscape, Alta Vista, Yahoo!, Lycos, and Infoseek allow you to search a part or the total web. But even the best engine will probably only locate about 20% of the available web sites. You may wish to use more than one engine to conduct a search.

Search engines usually provide tools to refine your search.
* Check the spelling of your search terms, especially names.
* Make the search words as specific as possible.
* Follow the directions to narrow your search:

Orwell AND nature or Orwell + nature
will list sites that include one or both words.

Orwell NOT Animal Farm or Orwell - Animal Farm
will list sites about Orwell that do not mention Animal Farm.

"Leopold and Loeb"
will list sites that only include both names, eliminating of documents about King Leopold or Loeb Realty.

DATABASES ON THE WEB

General search engines provide access to the entire spectrum of information on the worldwide web. Databases provide access to selected materials. InfoTrac, for example, includes newspaper and magazine articles from thousands of publications. It does not list professor's syllabi, corporate web sites, or personal web pages. Its directions are simple, and you can easily locate scores of articles on your subject. In most cases you can print hard copies of the articles.

USEFUL SITES

The Internet changes daily. Like the Yellow Pages, any list of sites will be incomplete and subject to change. The following are sites in specific disciplines:

ANTHROPOLOGY

Voice of the Shuttle: Anthropology Page
A list of anthropological research sites

ARCHAEOLOGY

ArchNet
A list of links to academic departments and museum sites.

Voice of the Shuttle: Archaeology Page
Lists research sites

ART

The Art History Research Center
International index to art web sites, including universities, libraries, and other sources.

National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
This site provides information about the gallery, exhibitions, and artists featured in the collection.

National Museum of American Art
This site offers a virtual tour of the collection.

WWW Virtual Library: Museums
An extensive list of Internet sites to galleries, museums, and collections.

COMMUNICATIONS AND JOURNALISM

Media-Link
List of links to newspapers, magazines, and broadcasting sites.

The WWW Virtual Library: Journalism
Extensive list of links for broadcasting, communications, media organizations, and news outlets.

COMPOSITION AND WRITING

The Everyday Writer: Writing Sites
Useful sites for writers and composition teachers.

Online Resources for Writers
Links to online sites in writing, grammar, and reference sources.

EDUCATION

The WWW Virtual Library: Education
A list of educational sources.

ENGLISH AND LINGUISTICS

The English Server at Carnegie-Mellon University
Links to thousands of texts in various fields.

Linguistics Resources on the Internet
Extensive list of links to resources on grammar, linguistics, and syntax.

THE ENVIRONMENT

EnviroLink
A comprehensive list of sources on the Internet.

The WWW Virtual Library: Environment
Extensive list of sources in environmental studies.

HISTORY

Gateway to World History
List of historical sources and documents.

THE HUMANITIES

Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia
A collection of electronic texts in English and some foreign languages.

Voice of the Shuttle
An index to sites in art, literature, religion, culture, and theology.

LITERATURE AND DRAMA

A Literary Index: Internet Resources in Literature
Comprehensive list of sites about literature and literary studies.

Voice of the Shuttle: English Literature Main Page
Extensive list of links to sites in literature and the humanities.

Playbill Online Presents Theatre Central
Extensive list of drama links.

PHILOSOPHY

The WWW Virtual Library: Philosophy
Links to internet resources in philosophy and related fields.